Isaac Zhang et.al.

2501.05262v1

Updating, managing, and proving world state are key bottlenecks facing the execution layer of blockchains today. Existing storage solutions are not flash-optimized and suffer from high flash write amplification and excessive DRAM requirements, forcing a trade-off between throughput and decentralization. We present the Quick Merkle Database (QMDB), an SSD-optimized authenticated data structure that delivers a superset of the features of existing databases. QMDB’s append-only design enables 1 SSD read per state access, $O(1)$ I/Os for updates, and in-memory Merkleization on a DRAM footprint small enough to fit on consumer-grade PCs. We demonstrate that QMDB offers a significant leap in throughput ($6 \times$ over RocksDB and $8 \times$ over a state-of-the-art verifiable database) and validate its scalability on datasets up to 15 billion entries ($10 \times$ Ethereum’s state size in 2024). Our projections indicate QMDB could store a theoretical maximum of 280 billion entries on a single machine, far exceeding current blockchain requirements. QMDB scales across both commodity and enterprise hardware, achieving up to 2 million state updates per second. QMDB sets a new benchmark for verifiable databases, alleviating today’s storage bottlenecks, lowering barriers to blockchain participation, and unlocking new blockchain applications.

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